1. Snow, C. P. 1959. “The Two Cultures.” Rede Lecture, Cambridge, UK , May 7.
1. Toinbee, Arnold. 1939. A Study of History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
CHAPTER 2
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CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
1. Houghton, R . A . 2007. “Balancing the Global Carbon Budget.” Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 35:313; Archer, David. 2010. Th e Global Carbon Cycle. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Various authors. 1997. “Carbon Dioxide and Climate Change.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 94:8273, which includes 16 papers presented at the Carbon Diox ide and Climate Change colloquium, November 13–15, 1995, Ir vine, CA ; Plass, G. N.,
J. R . Fleming , and G. Schmidt. 2010. “Carbon Dioxide and the Climate.” American Scientist,
Notes 243
Januar y–February; 2001 special issue of Oceanography (14 [4]) on ocean biochemistry and the global carbon cycle.
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CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11
Notes 245
CHAPTER 12
CHAPTER 13
1 World Bank. htt p://data.worldbank.org.
CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 15
CHAPTER 16
8 Feinberg, Matthew, and Willer, Robb. 2010. “Apocalypse Soon?: Dire Messages Reduce Belief in Global Warming by Contradicting Just-World Beliefs.” Psychological Science, December. htt p:// pss.sagepub.com/content/early/2010/12/06/0956797610391911.
Appendix 1
1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 0.252 Cal (Cal) = 1055 J (joules). 1 Cal = 1 kcal (kilocalorie) = 1 food calorie = 1000 calories. 1 kW·h (kilowatt-hours) = 3413 Btu. 1 quad = 1015 Btu. 1 tonne of oil equivalent (toe) = 40 million Btu = 40 MBtu.
1 barrel of crude oil = 42 gal (gallons) = 5.8 × 106 Btu = 6.12 × 109 J. 1 standard cubic ft. (foot) natural gas (SCF) = 1000 Btu. 1 therm = 100,000 Btu = 100 SCF. 1 gal of gasoline = 1.24 × 105 Btu. 1 ton of bituminous coal = 2.5 × 106 Btu.
1 in. (inch) = 2.54 cm (centimeters). 1 ft. = 30.5 cm. 1 mile = 5280 ft. = 1.61 km (kilometers).
WEIGHT
1 kg (kilogram) on Earth = 2.2 lb (pounds).
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Appendix 2
The Periodic Table of Elements
58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 | 70 | 71 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ce | Pr | Nd | Pm | Sm | Eu | Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Er | Tm | Yb | Lu |
140.1 | 141.0 | 144.2 | (145) | 150.4 | 153.0 | 157.3 | 158.9 | 162.5 | 164.9 | 167.3 | 168.9 | 173.0 | 175.0 |
90 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 94 | 95 | 96 | 97 | 98 | 99 | 100 | 101 | 102 | 103 |
Th | Pa | U | Np | Pu | Am | Cm | Bk | Cf | Es | Fm | Md | No | Lr |
232.4 | 231.4 | 238.0 | (237) | (240) | (243) | (247) | (248) | (251) | (252) | (257) | (257) | (259) | (262) |
Appendix 3
In this appendix I present the text of the three international treaties that were recently draft ed in order to coordinate the global response to the threat of man- induced atmospheric changes leading to climate change: the Rio Declaration, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the Kyoto Protocol. The Rio Declaration is fully quoted. Only selected articles that are directly relevant to the discussion in Chapter 13 are included for the other two treaties. The articles are quoted in full. The full text is available at the UNFCCC website at htt p://unfccc.int/2860.php.
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Having met at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992, Reaffirming the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June 1972, and seeking to build upon it, With the goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States, key sectors of societies and people, Working towards international agreements which respect the interests of all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental system, Recognizing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, our home, Proclaims that:
Principle 1
Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
Principle 2
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their
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jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Principle 3
The right to development must be fulfi lled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.
Principle 4
In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
Principle 5
All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world.
Principle 6
The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least developed and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority. International actions in the field of environment and development should also address the interests and needs of all countries.
Principle 7
States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth’s ecosystem. In view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. Th e developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.
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Principle 8
To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.
Principle 9
States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity- building for sustainable development by improving scientific understanding through exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the development, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies, including new and Innovative technologies.
Principle 10
Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision- making processes. States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided.
Principle 11
States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental and developmental context to which they apply. Standards applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular developing countries.
Principle 12
States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international economic system that would lead to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries, to bett er address the problems of environmental degradation. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifi able discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided. Environmental
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measures addressing transboundary or global environmental problems should, as far as possible, be based on an international consensus.
Principle 13
States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. States shall also cooperate in an expeditious and more determined manner to develop further international law regarding liability and compensation for adverse eff ects of environmental damage caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction.
Principle 14
States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful to human health.
Principle 15
In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. W here there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost- eff ective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
Principle 16
National authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment.
Principle 17
Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority.
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Principle 18
States shall immediately notif y other States of any natural disasters or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the environment of those States. Every eff ort shall be made by the international community to help States so affl icted.
Principle 19
States shall provide prior and timely notification and relevant information to potentially affected States on activities that may have a significant adverse transboundary environmental effect and shall consult with those States at an early stage and in good faith.
Principle 20
Women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development.
Principle 21
The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve sustainable development and ensure a bett er future for all.
Principle 22
Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests and enable their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development.
Principle 23
The environment and natural resources of people under oppression, domination and occupation shall be protected.
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Principle 24
Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development. States shall therefore respect international law providing protection for the environment in times of armed conflict and cooperate in its further development, as necessary.
Principle 25
Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible.
Principle 26
States shall resolve all their environmental disputes peacefully and by appropriate means in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.
Principle 27
States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership in the fulfillment of the principles embodied in this Declaration and in the further development of international law in the field of sustainable development.
The Parties to this Convention,
Acknowledging that change in the Earth’s climate and its adverse effects are a common concern of humankind,
Concerned that human activities have been substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, that these increases enhance the natural greenhouse eff ect, and that this will result on average in an additional warming of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere and may adversely affect natural ecosystems and humankind,
Noting that the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases has originated in developed countries, that per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low and that the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet their social and development needs,
Aware of the role and importance in terrestrial and marine ecosystems of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases,
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Noting that there are many uncertainties in predictions of climate change, particularly with regard to the timing, magnitude and regional patt erns thereof,
Acknowledging that the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response, in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities and their social and economic conditions,
Recalling the pertinent provisions of the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June 1972,
Recalling also that States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction,
Reaffirming the principle of sovereignty of States in international cooperation to address climate change,
Recognizing that States should enact effective environmental legislation, that environmental standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental and developmental context to which they apply, and that standards applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular developing countries,
Recalling the provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/228 of 22 December 1989 on the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, and resolutions 43/53 of 6 December 1988, 44/207 of 22 December 1989, 45/212 of 21 December 1990 and 46/169 of 19 December 1991 on protection of global climate for present and future generations of mankind,
Recalling also the provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/206 of 22 December 1989 on the possible adverse effects of sea- level rise on islands and coastal areas, particularly low-lying coastal areas and the pertinent provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/172 of 19 December 1989 on the implementation of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification,
Recalling further the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985, and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987, as adjusted and amended on 29 June 1990,
Noting the Ministerial Declaration of the Second World Climate Conference adopted on 7 November 1990,
Conscious of the valuable analytical work being conducted by many States on climate change and of the important contributions of the World Meteorological Organization, the
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United Nations Environment Programme and other organs, organizations and bodies of the United Nations system, as well as other international and intergovernmental bodies, to the exchange of results of scientific research and the coordination of research,
Recognizing that steps required to understand and address climate change will be environmentally, socially and economically most effective if they are based on relevant scientific, technical and economic considerations and continually re- evaluated in the light of new findings in these areas,
Recognizing that various actions to address climate change can be justified economically in their own right and can also help in solving other environmental problems,
Recognizing also the need for developed countries to take immediate action in a flexible manner on the basis of clear priorities, as a first step towards comprehensive response strategies at the global, national and, where agreed, regional levels that take into account all greenhouse gases, with due consideration of their relative contributions to the enhancement of the greenhouse eff ect,
Recognizing further that low-lying and other small island countries, countries with low-lying coastal, arid and semiarid areas or areas liable to floods, drought and desertification, and developing countries with fragile mountainous ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change,
Recognizing the special difficulties of those countries, especially developing countries, whose economies are particularly dependent on fossil fuel production, use and exportation, as a consequence of action taken on limiting greenhouse gas emissions,
Affi rming that responses to climate change should be coordinated with social and economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding adverse impacts on the latt er, taking into full account the legitimate priority needs of developing countries for the achievement of sustained economic growth and the eradication of poverty,
Recognizing that all countries, especially developing countries, need access to resources required to achieve sustainable social and economic development and that, in order for developing countries to progress towards that goal, their energy consumption will need to grow taking into account the possibilities for achieving greater energy effi ciency and for controlling greenhouse gas emissions in general, including through the application of new technologies on terms which make such an application economically and socially beneficial,
Determined to protect the climate system for present and future generations,
Have agreed as follows:
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Article 1
Definitions*
For the purposes of this Convention:
Article 2
Objective
The ultimate objective of this Convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt is to achieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the
* Titles of articles are included solely to assist the reader.
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Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time- frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
Article 3
Principles
In their actions to achieve the objective of the Convention and to implement its provisions, the Parties shall be guided, inter alia, by the following:
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national development programmes, taking into account that economic development is essential for adopting measures to address climate change.
5. The Parties should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international economic system that would lead to sustainable economic growth and development in all Parties, particularly developing country Parties, thus enabling them better to address the problems of climate change. Measures taken to combat climate change, including unilateral ones, should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade.
Article 4
Commitments
1. All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances, shall:
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(e) Cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change; develop and elaborate appropriate and integrated plans for coastal zone management, water resources and agriculture, and for the protection and rehabilitation of areas, particularly in Africa, affected by drought and desertification, as well as floods;
(f ) Take climate change considerations into account, to the extent feasible, in their relevant social, economic and environmental policies and actions, and employ appropriate methods, for example impact assessments, formulated and determined nationally, with a view to minimizing adverse effects on the economy, on public health and on the quality of the environment, of projects or measures undertaken by them to mitigate or adapt to climate change;
2. The developed country Parties and other Parties included in Annex I commit themselves specifically as provided for in the following:
(a) Each of these Parties shall adopt national policies and take corresponding measures on the mitigation of climate change, by limiting its anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and protecting and enhancing its greenhouse gas sinks and reservoirs. These policies and measures will demonstrate that developed countries are taking the lead in modif ying longer-term trends in anthropogenic emissions consistent with the objective of the Convention, recognizing that the return by the end of the present decade to earlier levels of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases not controlled
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by the Montreal Protocol would contribute to such modification, and taking into account the differences in these Parties’ starting points and approaches, economic structures and resource bases, the need to maintain strong and sustainable economic growth, available technologies and other individual circumstances, as well as the need for equitable and appropriate contributions by each of these Parties to the global effort regarding that objective. These Parties may implement such policies and measures jointly with other Parties and may assist other Parties in contributing to the achievement of the objective of the Convention and, in particular, that of this subparagraph;
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take place not later than 31 December 1998, and thereafter at regular intervals determined by the Conference of the Parties, until the objective of the Convention is met;
(e) Each of these Parties shall:
(f ) The Conference of the Parties shall review, not later than 31 December 1998, available information with a view to taking decisions regarding such amendments to the lists in Annexes I and II as may be appropriate, with the approval of the Party concerned;
(g) Any Party not included in Annex I may, in its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, or at any time thereafter, notify the Depositary that it intends to be bound by subparagraphs (a) and (b) above. The Depositary shall inform the other signatories and Parties of any such notification.
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particularly developing country Parties, to enable them to implement the provisions of the Convention. In this process, the developed country Parties shall support the development and enhancement of endogenous capacities and technologies of developing country Parties. Other Parties and organizations in a position to do so may also assist in facilitating the transfer of such technologies.
(c) Countries with arid and semi- arid areas, forested areas and areas liable to forest decay; (d) Countries with areas prone to natural disasters; (e) Countries with areas liable to drought and desertification; (f ) Countries with areas of high urban atmospheric pollution; (g) Countries with areas with fragile ecosystems, including mountainous ecosystems; (h) Countries whose economies are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and export, and/or on consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy- intensive products; and (i) Land- locked and transit countries.
Further, the Conference of the Parties may take actions, as appropriate, with respect to this paragraph.
9. The Parties shall take full account of the specifi c needs and special situations of the least developed countries in their actions with regard to funding and transfer of technology.
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10. The Parties shall, in accordance with Article 10, take into consideration in the implementation of the commitments of the Convention the situation of Parties, particularly developing country Parties, with economies that are vulnerable to the adverse effects of the implementation of measures to respond to climate change. Th is applies notably to Parties with economies that are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy- intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels for which such Parties have serious difficulties in switching to alternatives.
Article 7
Conference of the Parties
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(e) Assess, on the basis of all information made available to it in accordance with the provisions of the Convention, the implementation of the Convention by the Parties, the overall effects of the measures taken pursuant to the Convention, in particular environmental, economic and social effects as well as their cumulative impacts and the extent to which progress towards the objective of the Convention is being achieved;
(f ) Consider and adopt regular reports on the implementation of the Convention and ensure their publication;
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any Party, provided that, within six months of the request being communicated to the Parties by the secretariat, it is supported by at least one third of the Parties.
6. The United Nations, its specialized agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency, as well as any State member thereof or observers thereto not Party to the Convention, may be represented at sessions of the Conference of the Parties as observers. Any body or agency, whether national or international, governmental or non-governmental, which is qualified in matters covered by the Convention, and which has informed the secretariat of its wish to be represented at a session of the Conference of the Parties as an observer, may be so admitted unless at least one third of the Parties present object. The admission and participation of observers shall be subject to the rules of procedure adopted by the Conference of the Parties.
Article 8
Secretariat
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Article 9
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advance
Article 10
Subsidiary Body for Implementation
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scientific assessments concerning climate change; (b) Consider the information communicated in accordance with Article 12, paragraph 2, in order to assist the Conference of the Parties in carrying out the reviews required by Article 4, paragraph 2(d); and (c) Assist the Conference of the Parties, as appropriate, in the preparation and implementation of its decisions.
Article 12
Communication of Information Related to Implementation
1. In accordance with Article 4, paragraph 1, each Party shall communicate to the Conference of the Parties, through the secretariat, the following elements of information:
(a) A national inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, to the extent its capacities permit, using comparable methodologies to be promoted and agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties; (b) A general description of steps taken or envisaged by the Party to implement the Convention; and (c) Any other information that the Party considers relevant to the achievement of the objective of the Convention and suitable for inclusion in its communication, including, if feasible, material relevant for calculations of global emission trends.
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Convention for that Party. Each Party not so listed shall make its initial communication within three years of the entry into force of the Convention for that Party, or of the availability of financial resources in accordance with Article 4, paragraph 3. Parties that are least developed countries may make their initial communication at their discretion. The frequency of subsequent communications by all Parties shall be determined by the Conference of the Parties, taking into account the differentiated timetable set by this paragraph.
Th e Parties to this Protocol, Being Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, hereinaf
ter referred to as “the Convention”,
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In pursuit of the ultimate objective of the Convention as stated in its Article 2, Recalling the provisions of the Convention, Being guided by Article 3 of the Convention, Pursuant to the Berlin Mandate adopted by decision 1/CP.1 of the Conference of the Par
ties to the Convention at its first session, Have agreed as follows:
Article 1
For the purposes of this Protocol, the definitions contained in Article 1 of the Convention shall apply. In addition:
Article 2
1. Each Party included in Annex I, in achieving its quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3, in order to promote sustainable development, shall:
(a) Implement and/or further elaborate policies and measures in accordance with its national circumstances, such as: (i) Enhancement of energy effi ciency in relevant sectors of the national economy; (ii) Protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol,
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taking into account its commitments under relevant international environmental agreements; promotion of sustainable forest management practices, aff orestation and reforestation; (iii) Promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture in light of climate change considerations; (iv) Research on, and promotion, development and increased use of, new and renewable forms of energy, of carbon dioxide sequestration technologies and of advanced and innovative environmentally sound technologies; (v) Progressive reduction or phasing out of market imperfections, fiscal incentives, tax and duty exemptions and subsidies in all greenhouse gas emitting sectors that run counter to the objective of the Convention and application of market instruments; (vi) Encouragement of appropriate reforms in relevant sectors aimed at promoting policies and measures which limit or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol; (vii) Measures to limit and/or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol in the transport sector; (viii) Limitation and/or reduction of methane emissions through recovery and use in waste management, as well as in the production, transport and distribution of energy;
(b) Cooperate with other such Parties to enhance the individual and combined effectiveness of their policies and measures adopted under this Article, pursuant to Article 4, paragraph 2(e)(i), of the Convention. To this end, these Parties shall take steps to share their experience and exchange information on such policies and measures, including developing ways of improving their comparability, transparency and eff ectiveness. The Conference of Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session or as soon as practicable thereafter, consider ways to facilitate such cooperation, taking into account all relevant information.
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the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol may take further action, as appropriate, to promote the implementation of the provisions of this paragraph.
4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, if it decides that it would be beneficial to coordinate any of the policies and measures in paragraph 1(a) above, taking into account different national circumstances and potential effects, shall consider ways and means to elaborate the coordination of such policies and measures.
Article 3
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and forestry categories shall be added to, or subtracted from, the assigned amounts for Parties included in Annex I, taking into account uncertainties, transparency in reporting, verifiability, the methodological work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice in accordance with Article 5 and the decisions of the Conference of the Parties. Such a decision shall apply in the second and subsequent commitment periods. A Party may choose to apply such a decision on these additional human- induced activities for its first commitment period, provided that these activities have taken place since 1990.
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Article 4
1. Any Parties included in Annex I that have reached an agreement to fulfil their commitments under Article 3 jointly, shall be deemed to have met those commitments provided that their total combined aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the greenhouse gases listed in Annex A do not exceed their assigned amounts calculated pursuant to their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B and in accordance with the provisions of Article
3. The respective emission level allocated to each of the Parties to the agreement shall be set out in that agreement.
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Article 5
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Article 6
Article 7
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Article 8
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teams shall prepare a report to the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, assessing the implementation of the commitments of the Party and identifying any potential problems in, and factors influencing, the fulfilment of commitments. Such reports shall be circulated by the secretariat to all Parties to the Convention. The secretariat shall list those questions of implementation indicated in such reports for further consideration by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.
Article 10
All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances, without introducing any new commitments for Parties not included in Annex I, but reaffi rming existing commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention, and continuing to advance the implementation of these commitments in order to achieve sustainable development, taking into account Article 4, paragraphs 3, 5 and 7, of the Convention, shall:
(a) Formulate, where relevant and to the extent possible, cost- effective national and, where appropriate, regional programmes to improve the quality of local emission factors, activity data and/or models which reflect the socio-economic conditions of each Party for the preparation and periodic updating of national inventories of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not
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controlled by the Montreal Protocol, using comparable methodologies to be agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties, and consistent with the guidelines for the preparation of national communications adopted by the Conference of the Parties;
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train experts in this fi eld, in particular for developing countries, and facilitate at the national level public awareness of, and public access to information on, climate change. Suitable modalities should be developed to implement these activities through the relevant bodies of the Convention, taking into account Article 6 of the Convention;
(f ) Include in their national communications information on programmes and activities undertaken pursuant to this Article in accordance with relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties; and
(g) Give full consideration, in implementing the commitments under this Article, to Article 4, paragraph 8, of the Convention.
Article 11
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resources for the implementation of Article 10, through bilateral, regional and other multilateral channels.
Article 12
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particularly vulnerable to the adverse eff ects of climate change to meet the costs of
adaptation.
Article 17
The Conference of the Parties shall define the relevant principles, modalities, rules and guidelines, in particular for verification, reporting and accountability for emissions trading. Th e Parties included in Annex B may participate in emissions trading for the purposes of fulfilling their commitments under Article 3. Any such trading shall be supplemental to domestic actions for the purpose of meeting quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under that Article.
Article 18
The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session, approve appropriate and effective procedures and mechanisms to determine and to address cases of non- compliance with the provisions of this Protocol, including through the development of an indicative list of consequences, taking into account the cause, type, degree and frequency of non- compliance. Any procedures and mechanisms under this Article entailing binding consequences shall be adopted by means of an amendment to this Protocol.
British Petroleum Statistical Review of World Energy 2010. htt p://www.bp.com/productlanding.do ?categoryId=6929&contentId=7044622.
Energy Information Administration (EIA). htt p://www.eia.doe.gov.
European Science Foundation. htt p://www.esf.org.
Historical Records of CO2 Atmospheric Concentrations. htt p://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/co2/contents .htm.
International Energy Agency (IEA). htt p://wds.iea.org.
NASA Goddard Institute. htt p://www.giss.nasa.gov.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laborator y. htt p://airs.jpl .nasa.gov/stor y_archive/Pre-Release_CO2_Data_Available.
National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). htt p://nsidc.org/cryosphere/index.html.
US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Factbook. htt ps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/ the-world-factbook/index.html.
US Geological Survey Digital Data Series. htt p://pubs.usgs.gov/dds/dds-060/index.html.
UK government. htt p://data.gov.uk.
US Historical Climatology Network, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (NOAA). htt p://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/ushcn/ushcn.html.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Statistics. htt p://www.unctad .org/Templates/Page.asp?intItemID=1584&lang=1.
World Bank. htt p://data.worldbank.org.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report. 2007. htt p://www .ipcc.ch.
National Science Foundation (NSF) Climate Change Special Report. 2009. htt p://www.nsf.gov/ news/special_reports/climate.
World Bank World Development Report: Development and Climate Change (WDR10). 2010. htt p:// www.docstoc.com/docs/11368821/WDR10-Full-Text.
United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) Climate Change Science Compendium. 2009. htt p:// www.unep.org/pdf/ccScienceCompendium2009/cc_ScienceCompendium2009_full_en.pdf.
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Note: b designates box; f, figure; and t, table.
A
Abe, Shinzo, 237 Abel, Daniel C., 214 absolute time, 39 acids, 61b adaptation to climate change
biological, 228– 29
human, 238– 40 aerosols, 91 air pollutants. See greenhouse gases air pressure of sea air, 58, 58t, 63 air quality standards, 191– 92 air sampling , 18 air suspensions, 91– 92 Alaska, temperatures of, 223 albedo, 85b, 87, 105– 6 algae, 159 alkalinity, 62b alternative energy, 149– 75. See also economic
policy for transition to alternative energy;
environmental policy; nuclear energy costs of, 171– 72, 171t growth of, 174– 75 life- cycle assessment of, 156 primary and secondary, 150 real and projected changes in, 172, 173f, 174 share of energy from, 155t solar energy, 157– 64 transitioning to, 139, 181, 217– 18
Amazon rainforest, 26f. See also forests layers of, 25 modeling energy content of, 27– 28, 28– 29f,
30 direct- measurement confirmation, 31– 32,
31f, 36 square base of trees, 30b time span and GDP, 25b, 27b
amines and carbon removal, 170– 71 amplitude, 76, 76f anaerobic bacteria, 50 anion, 60b Antarctica, 120– 21
carbon dioxide concentrations at, 18, 19f ice cores from, 47 signs of global warming at, 224– 25
appliances energy required for, 215 Energy Star project for, 218
arbitrage, 179 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), 182, 203 Arctic, the, 222– 23 Armageddon, 23– 24 atmosphere, 33b. See also greenhouse gases
carbon “ budget” of, 53– 55, 54f composition of, 86– 87, 87t global nature of, 191– 92 temperature of, 33b
atomic energy. See nuclear energy atomic mass, 152b, 152t atomic number, 39b atoms
electron sharing by, 59– 60b energy generation and, 151– 53b isotopic, 39– 40b structure of, 13b
Avogadro’s number, 13b
287
B
bacteria, anaerobic, 50 bases, 61b Bay of Fundy, 122 Beerbohm, Max, 232 behavioral economics, 236 beta particles, 41b beta radiation, 41b Big Mac Index, 179 Big Tobacco litigation, 188, 189 binding energy, 151– 53b, 151f biofuels
bioenergy yield vs. fossil energy input, 159t
ethanol, 158– 59 biological adaptability, 228– 29 biological pump, 63– 64 biomass, 157– 58
ethanol, 158– 59
use in various countries, 154t blackbody, 80 blackbody radiation, 80– 87
average global temperature and, 84– 86b Earth-sun energy balance and, 83– 84 greenhouses and, 86 spectral distributions of, 80– 82, 81f
blue-green algae, 1 British thermal unit, 12b, 17– 18b Bohr, Niels, 77 bonds
atomic, 59– 60b
chemical, 60b breeder reactor, 168 Btu (British thermal unit), 12b, 17– 18b bubonic plague, 234
CAFE (corporate average fuel economy) stan
dards, 182– 83 calcium carbonate, 45, 64, 66 Calorie, 12b, 101 cap and trade, 183. See also emission trading
schemes (ETSs) carbon, 40– 41b carbon- 12, 152t carbon- 14, 40– 41b carbonate rocks, 64 carbon “ budget”
atmospheric, 53– 55, 54f land, 55– 57, 55f ocean, 57– 58, 58f, 63– 64
carbon capture and storage, 170– 71 carbon cycle, 16, 53– 66 carbon dating, 40– 41b carbon dioxide
anthropogenic, 54, 54f, 64– 66 change in concentration of, 19f concentrations observed at air sampling sites,
18, 19f fossil fuels and, 21 model of atmospheric, 32– 35b radiative forcing of, 89t sequestration of, 17, 31 simple model of sequestration of, 25– 36 at Vostok ice core, 47, 48f in water, 59– 62b water reaction with, 61– 62b
carbon dioxide emissions of China, 199 vs. forest sequestration of carbon dioxide, 31 global energy use and, 145t real and projected changes in, 136f of United States, 200 of United States vs. India, 134, 134f of various countries, 199– 200, 200t
carbon dioxide fertilization, 56 carbon dioxide intensity, 140, 141– 42b, 142, 143t carbonic acid, 62b, 66 Carnot effi ciency, 73, 164 Carnot, Sadi, 73 catastrophes, risk, and insurance, 237– 38 cation, 60b Celsius scale, 70– 71 cement production, 54– 55 CFC- 12, 92 chain reactions, 165– 66, 166b chemical bond, 60b
Index 289
Chernobyl nuclear plant, 169 China and carbon dioxide emissions, 199 chlorine atom, 60b chlorofl uorocarbons (CFCs)
international agreements to phase out, 195– 96 ozone and, 92, 93 radiative forcing of, 89, 89t
Chrichton, Michael, 221 citizenship and consumer choice, 187– 88 climate. See also weather
history of, 37– 52 human influence on, 107– 8 regional variations in, 97– 99
climate history, 117. See also global warming astronomical cycles and, 99– 100 periodicity of temperature profiles in, 50– 51 proxy measurements of temperature and, 44– 49 since end of last ice age, 51– 52, 51f temperature profiles and, 48f, 51f Vostok ice core and, 47, 48f, 50, 51
climate models. See also IPAT equation anthropogenic contributions and, 110– 11,
110f, 125 feedbacks, uncertainty, predictions in, 114– 15 methods of validating , 115– 16 Newtonian mechanics and, 112– 13b 100-year projections of, 24 parameterization and, 113 and scenarios of CO2 emissions, GDP, and
population growth, 136– 38 simple, 25– 36 simple vs. complicated, 113 time spans and, 25b, 27b
climate sensitivity, 114 Climatopolis, 238– 39 closure temperature, 42 clouds, 102, 105– 6, 106f coal
carbon dioxide intensity of, 142b
global reser ves of, 204, 204t Collapse, 158 combustible, renewable, and waste (CRW)
energy, 174 committed warming , 232– 33 communication revolution and technologies,
193– 94, 194t condensation, 101 Congressional Budget Office (CBO) report on
gasoline consumption policy, 182– 84 consumer choice, 187– 88, 218 Copenhagen climate conference (2009), 201 Copernican revolution, 112b Copernicus, Nicolaus, 5, 112b coral bleaching, 227– 28, 227f corals and climate history, 45– 46, 46f corporations, 195 cost- benefit analysis, 177– 78, 180 covalent bond, 59b Crutzen, Paul, 195 cryosphere, 222– 26 cyanobacteria, 1
D
data importance of raw, 7– 8 units for, 11– 13
Davies, Paul, 10 Day aft er Tomorrow, Th e, 221 deforestation, 54, 66. See also Amazon rainforest deuterium- tritium reaction, 167, 168 Deutsch, David, 6 dimensional analysis. See IPAT equation dolomite, 64 doubling time, 27b Drake, Frank, 10
E
Earth, 150. See also atmosphere; global
temperatures creation myths about, 7 energy balance of, 87, 88f energy flux of, 85b orbit of, 84f, 97– 99, 98f radiation from, 83 and Venus compared, 94– 95, 95t
Earth- Moon system, 122– 23b, 123f
Earth Summit (1992), 196– 98 economic policy for transition to alternative energy, 181– 87 allocation of gasoline tax dollars, 184– 85 cost of environmental depreciation, 186– 87 high- priority activities, 185– 86 reduction of gasoline consumption, 182– 84 efficient market hypothesis, 235 Einstein, Albert, 6 photons, 77 theory of relativity, 69b electric and gas bills, 208, 209f, 210f electricity production energy sources of, 154t by power plants, 150 second law of thermodynamics and, 154 in various countries, 154t electromagnetic spectrum, 76– 77, 77t electromagnetic wave, 75– 76, 76f electrovalent bond, 60b elements, 39b emission allowances, 183 emission trading schemes (ETSs), 198– 99 energy, 67– 70. See also alternative energy; nuclear energy atoms and, 151– 53b forms of, 68t global balance of, 87, 88f law of conservation of, 68, 71 mass and, 69– 70b power and, 17– 18b energy audit, individual, 208– 9, 210t, 211– 13b energy consumption carbon dioxide emission and, 145t gross domestic product and, 21– 23, 22f of household items, 214– 15 present distribution of, 154– 55 projected changes in, 173f total US, 213 of various countries, 199– 200, 200t energy flux of sun and Earth, 85b
energy intensity, 21, 132– 33 gross domestic product and, 135, 135f of various countries, 201t Energy Star project, 218 energy units, 11, 12b entropy, 71– 74, 83
Environmental Issues: Measuring , Analyzing , and Evaluating, 214 environmental lawsuits, 188– 89 environmental policy. See also international laws and agreements communication revolution and, 193– 94 corporations and, 195 global nature of atmosphere and, 191– 92 governance of sovereign states and, 192 local governments and, 194 national security and, 201– 5 nongovernmental organizations and, 194– 95 political instability and, 202– 3 environmental trust fund, 186– 87 equilibration processes, 114 equilibrium restoration of, 23 thermal, 233 ethanol, 158– 59 European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA), 47, 100 evaporation, water. See water evaporation exchange rate, 179, 179t exponential growth, 27b, 143– 44 extensive property, 70 extinctions, mass, 50 extraterrestrial life, 8– 10
F
Fahrenheit, Gabriel, 20 Fahrenheit scale, 70– 71 feedback in climate models, 114 clouds and, 105– 6 feeding transition, 139, 181, 217– 18
Index 291
Feinberg, Matt hew, 236 Fermi, Enrico, 10 Fermi paradox, 10 fi ssion. See nuclear fission flood insurance, 237 foraminifera. See plankton and climate history forests. See also Amazon rainforest
certification of, 158, 187 change in coverage of, 158, 158t as energy source, 157– 58
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 158, 187 formula, chemical, 13b fossil fuels, 17, 139– 47. See also oil
carbon dioxide and, 21 carbon sequestration in forests vs. consump
tion of, 31 coal as, 142b, 204, 204t consumption of types of, 141f fraction of, in total energy consumption, 140,
140f lowering consumption of, 182 measuring carbon dioxide and, 65 methane- oxygen reaction in combustion of,
15– 16b natural gas as, 141– 42b reserves (proven) of, 145t reserves (ultimate) of, 146– 47, 147f role of, 140– 42 search for, 203– 4 supply of, 144– 47
fossil pollen and climate history, 49 fossils, 38 fractional attributable risk, 189 Freon, 93 fuel economy standards, 182– 83 fusion. See nuclear fusion
G
Galapagos Islands sea surface temperatures, 45– 46, 46f gas and electric bills, 208, 209f, 210f
gases. See also greenhouse gases ideal, 100
gasoline price elasticity of, 184 reduction of consumption of, 182– 84 taxes and prices of, 183
GDP (gross domestic product), 130– 32 energy and, 132– 33 energy intensity and, 135, 135f energy use and, 21– 23, 22f example of growth of, 27b global income groups and, 130f purchasing power parity and, 178– 80 scenario- related projected changes in, 137f
GE (General Electric Corporation), 195 genocides and “just world” hypothesis, 232, 234– 37 geological time scale, 38, 38t geothermal energy, 169 Giga (G), 18b glacial– interglacial cycles, 99– 100 glaciers, 117
Kenai Fjord National Park Exit Glacier, 223, 224f
sea- level rise and total melting of, 121t global energy balance, 87, 88f Global Environmental Facility (GEF), 195 global security and sustainable energy use, 201– 3 global temperatures
change in average, 20f 130 years of average, 20– 21, 20f model of predicted increases in, 114– 15, 115f periodicity of, 50– 51 proxy measurements of historical, 44– 49 Stefan-Boltzmann equation and, 83– 84, 85– 86b
global warming. See also climate history biological adaptation to, 228– 29 human adaptation to, 238– 40 national security and, 205, 221 projected impact of, 232– 34, 233t skeptism of, 201– 2, 221, 236 visible signs of, 222– 28 water cycle, feedback, and, 105– 6 global warming potential (GWP), 90 Gore, Al, 111 governance and environmental policy. See envi
ronmental policy gram- molecular weight (mole), 13b gravity and tides, 122– 23b Great Barrier Reef, 227 greenhouse, 79– 80, 79f, 86 greenhouse eff ect, 79– 95 greenhouse gases, 88. See also carbon dioxide;
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs); methane aerosols, 91 global nature of, 191– 92 nitrogen oxides, 89, 89t, 90– 91, 94 ozone, 92– 94 radiative forcing of, 89– 90, 89t water as, 105
gross domestic product. See GDP growth, exponential, 143– 44
H
half- life, 41b Hall, T., 53 Hansen, James, 90 heat, 68– 69
global mechanical work and, 99
water cycle and, 100– 101 heating, household, 216 helium, 59b Hertz, 76 Highway Trust Fund, 183 Hitler, Adolf, 232 Holocaust, 231– 32. See also genocides and “just
world” hypothesis household appliances. See appliances Hubbert, M. King, 144 humus, 57 Hurricane Katrina, 226 hybrid automobile engines, 218– 19 hydroelectric energy, 160, 161– 62b, 174f hydrogen, 59b, 149
I
ice, energy required to make, 215 ice caps, 225– 26 ice cores and climate history, 47 ideal gas, 100 ideal gas law, 34b India
carbon dioxide emission of, 134, 134f energy intensity of, 132– 33, 133f GDP vs. US GDP, 130– 32, 131f product of GDP and energy intensity of, 135,
135f Industrial Revolution, 37 insurance industry and climate change, 237– 38 intensive property, 70 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), 111, 177 models of anthropogenic contributions to climate change, 125 scenarios of environmental outcomes,
136– 38 internal combustion engine, 73 international laws and agreements, 192– 93
Earth Summit, 196– 98 Kyoto Protocol, 132, 198– 201 Montreal Protocol, 195– 96 personalization of, 217– 19 United Nations Climate Change conference
(2009, Copenhagen), 201 ion, 60b IPAT (impact, population, affl uence, technol
ogy) equation, 125– 26 carbon dioxide intensity and, 140, 141– 42b,
142, 143t energy intensity and, 132– 33 fossil fuel supply and, 145– 47 gross domestic product and, 130– 32 population growth rate and, 126– 30 validation of, 133– 35
isotopes, 40– 41b, 42t isotopic fractionation, 39, 42– 44, 43b, 44t
Index 293
J
joule, 12b Joule, James, 12b, 69 “just world” hypothesis and genocides, 234– 37
K
Kahn, Matt hew, 238– 39 Kassow, Samuel, 235 Kelvin scale, 71 Kenai Fjord National Park Exit Glacier, 223, 224f Khatiwala, S., 53 kilowatt (kW), 17b kilowatt- hours (kW ?h), 17b knowledge, acquiring, 8– 9 Kyoto Protocol, 132, 198– 201
L
land biota, 57 Larsen ice shelf, 225, 225f latent heat of evaporation, 100– 101 law, international. See international laws and
agreements law of conser vation of energy, 68, 71 lawsuits against polluters, 188– 89 Le Chatelier, Henri Louis, 23 Le Chatelier’s principle, 23, 61b, 62b Lemkin, Raphael, 232 life- cycle assessment (LCA), 156 life- cycle inventory (LCI), 156 light, 74– 78. See also radiation
entropy and wavelengths of, 83
speed of, 8– 9, 76 limestone, 45, 64 Limits to Growth, 143– 44 liquid- fuel thorium (Th) reactor, 168 liquid-gas conversion, 100– 101 Little Ice Age, 51, 51f Lomborg , Bjorn, 177
M
Malthus, Robert, 143 Malthusian Club of Rome, 143, 144 mass and energy, 69– 70b mass extinctions, 50 mass number of atom, 39b mass unit, 13b Mauna Loa air sampling site, 18 Mauna Loa and carbon dioxide concentrations,
19f McConnel, Robert L., 214 mechanical work, 67, 68– 69, 99 Mein Kampf, 232 methane, 90
carbon dioxide intensity of, 141– 42b radiative forcing of, 89, 89t Vostok ice core and, 47, 49f
methane- oxygen reaction, 15– 16b microorganisms, respiration of, 57 microturbines, 218– 19 Milankovic, Milutin, 99 models. See climate models molecular weight, 13b mole (gram- molecular weight), 13b Molina, Mario, 195 Montreal Protocol, 195– 96 Mount Kiliimanjaro, 225– 26 Mount Pinatubo, 91– 92
N
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 156
national security environmental policy and, 201– 5 global warning and, 205, 221
natural gas, 141– 42b negative feedback and clouds, 105– 6 Newtonian mechanics, 112– 13b, 116 Newton, Isaac, 5– 6
law of gravity, 122b
laws of motion, 112b New York City and climate- change plan, 239 Niagara Falls, 160f, 161– 62b nitrogen and ozone formation, 94 nitrogen dioxide, 94 nitrous oxide, 89, 89t, 90– 91 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 194– 95 nuclear energy, 164– 69
global distribution of, 205 growth rate of, 174, 174f national security and, 205
nuclear fission, 70b, 165– 66 nuclear fusion, 151– 53b, 166– 67, 169 nuclear power plants, 168– 69 nucleons, binding energy of, 151b, 151f
O
oceans. See also sea- level rise; sea surface tem
perature (SST) carbon “ budget” of, 57– 58, 58f, 63– 64 carbon species in, 62b coral bleaching and temperature of, 227– 28 effects of carbon dioxide on, 66 salinity of, 107 seasons and heating and cooling of, 99 thermals of, 164
ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 164
oil carbon dioxide intensity of, 142b Hubbert’s model of US supply of, 144, 144f political instability and price and supply of,
202– 3
proven reserves of, 145– 46, 146t Oyneg Shabes, 235 ozone and ozone layer, 92– 94, 195– 96
P
paleoclimatology, 37 parameterization, 113 particulate matt er, 91 periodic table, 39– 40b permafrost, 222, 223 perpetual motion machine, 68 Peta (P), 18b petroleum. See oil pH, 61b photoelectric eff ect, 77 photons, 77 photosynthesis, 15– 16b, 16, 56 photovoltaic solar cells, 163– 64, 163t, 175 phytoplankton, 63– 64 Planck’s constant, 77 plankton and climate history, 46– 47 plants, carbon dioxide sequestration by, 17 plasma, 167 polar regions, 222– 25. See also Antarctica policy. See economic policy for transition to
alternative energy; environmental policy pollen, fossil, 49 pollution rights, trade in, 183 Popeye and energy, 67 Popper, Karl, 5 population growth, 126– 30
estimate of world, 127f as function of GDP per capita, 128– 29, 128f global urban, 239 limit to exponential, 143– 44 projected continental distribution of, 127f scenario- related projected changes in, 137f
power and energy, 17– 18b
precipitation, 102 energy required for, 104– 5b global monthly average, 104f
price elasticity, 184 Primea, F., 53 purchasing power parity (PPP), 178– 80, 179t pycnocline zone, 120b
R
radiation. See also blackbody radiation; light of Earth and sun, 83 thermal, 86
radiative forcing , 86, 89– 94 of atmospheric components, 89t of clouds, 106
radiometric dating, 39– 41b, 42 rain. See precipitation rainbow, 74– 75, 74f rainforest. See Amazon rainforest
Index 295
Rance River tidal power station, 170 rational choice theor y, 235 raw data, importance of, 7– 8 relative time, 37– 38 renewable energy. See alternative energy respiration, 15– 16b, 16, 56– 57 Ringelblum, Emanuel, 235 Rio Declaration, 197 Roman Climate Optimum, 51, 51f Rowland, Sher wood, 195 Russia and population growth, 129
S
salinity, 106– 7
salt, 60b
Santayana, George, 232
scientific method, 4– 7, 5f, 6f
sea- level rise, 117– 18, 118f. See also oceans calculation of, 119– 20b total melting of glaciers and, 121t
Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence, 10
seas. See oceans
seasons, 97– 99, 98f
sea surface temperature (SST). See also oceans of Atlantic Ocean, 226 of Galàpagos Islands, 45– 46, 46f
SETI (Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence), 10
Skeptical Environmentalist, Th e, 177
snow, mountain, 225– 26
socioeconomic development. See IPAT equation
sodium atom, 59– 60b
soil respiration, 57
solar cells, 163– 64
solar energy, 157– 64
solar energy flux, 85b
solar radiation, 83
solubility, 107
Southern Annular Mode (SAM), 224– 25
South Pole. See Antarctica
Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES), 136
speed of light, 8– 9, 76 stars and fusion, 153b State of Fear, 221 statistical mechanics, 235– 36 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 82– 83, 83– 84, 85– 86b Stern, Nicholas, 177 storms, tropical, 226 stratosphere
ozone in, 93– 94
temperatures of, 33b, 33f strong nuclear force, 40b sun, 149
energy flux from, 85b
fusion reaction and, 153b supernovas, 153b sustainable energy. See alternative energy Swiss Re, 237
T
table salt, 60b tax and spend policies. See economic policy for transition to alternative energy technologies, energy-saving, economic viability
of, 219 televisions, energy required for, 215 temperate zone, cryosphere in, 225– 26 temperatures, 70– 71. See also global
temperatures closure, 42 of Earth’s atmosphere, 33b equilibrium of, 86 history of (see climate history) sea- level rise and, 117– 18, 119– 20b
Tera (T), 18b Th - 230, 45 thermal equilibrium, 233 thermal expansion, 119b thermal radiation, 86. See also blackbody
radiation thermocline, 119b thermodynamics, second law of, 72– 73, 154 Three Mile Island nuclear plant, 169 tidal power, 170 tides, 121– 22, 122– 23b
time absolute, 39 relative, 37– 38
tobacco lawsuits, 188, 189 Toynbee, Arnold, 240 treaties, 192– 93 tree rings and climate history, 47, 49 tropics, the
coral bleaching in, 227– 28 cryosphere in, 225– 26 storms in, 226
troposphere layers of, 34– 35b, 35f ozone in, 94 temperature and pressure as function of height
for, 34b, 34t temperature as function of height in, 33b, 33f truth, acquiring, 4– 8
U
United Nations Climate Change conference (2009, Copenhagen), 201 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 111
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 197– 98, 217, 228
United States carbon dioxide emissions of, 134, 134f, 200 energy intensity of, 132– 33, 133f GDP vs. India GDP, 130– 32, 131f product of GDP and energy intensity of, 135,
135f units, 11– 13 universe and Newtonian mechanics, 112– 13b uranium, 165 uranium- 235, 167– 68
valence, 59b Venus, 94– 95, 95t video cassette recorders (VCR s), 214– 15 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 193
Vienna Convention (1985), 196 volcanoes, 91– 92 Vostok ice core and climate history, 47, 48f, 50, 51
W
Ward, Peter, 50
water, 60– 61b atmospheric, 88 carbon dioxide in, 59– 62b carbon dioxide reaction with, 61– 62b fresh, 106, 107 global distribution of, 103t molecular formula for, 13b
water cycle, 101– 5, 103f global warming , feedback, and, 105– 6 latent heat and, 100– 101 salinity and, 107
water evaporation, 100– 101 energy required for, 102, 104– 5b feedback and, 105– 6
waterfalls, energy derived from, 161– 62b wave power, 164 waves, 75– 76, 75f, 76f weather, 97– 108
forecasting of, 109– 10, 112– 13b skeptism of global warming and local trends
of, 221 West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS), 225 Who Will Write Our History?, 235 Wien’s displacement law, 82– 83 Willer, Robb, 236 wind energy, 162– 63 windmills, 162, 162f wind turbines, 162, 163f, 174– 75, 175f wood, 157– 58 work, mechanical, 67, 68– 69 World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 111
Z
zooplankton. See plankton and climate history